A Review of Conflict Resolution

and Peer Mediation Programs

 

A Research Paper

By

 

Bradley C. Stott

 

Conflict is inevitable. Conflict among children and adolescents is always a concern because children (in addition to many adults) have not yet learned to handle conflict constructively. Violence however, is not inevitable—it can be prevented, and “prevention is the best solution to violence and this can best be achieved by uniting the home, school and community in efforts to protect children and youth.” (Hoot & Roberson, 1994.) Because our society provides easy access to guns and other weapons and is plagued by drug abuse, parental absence, violent images and sexual abuse, the need for effective conflict management techniques is strong both at home and at school. Previous Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley stated, “Violence creates an environment where children cannot learn, teachers cannot teach and parents are reluctant to send their children to school.” (ACEI Exchange, 1993.) Obviously, incidents like “Columbine” and others have proven frightening for parents and teachers. It is important that conflict is directed in more constructive ways through conflict management techniques. Schools are a primary disseminator of this valuable information, but schools are expected to be more than teachers of conflict management techniques. As stated by Meg Lundstrom, “…across the country, the teaching of character and values is making an unprecedented comeback in at least one place—the schools. Many school districts have instituted programs that do two things: provide students with a grounding in such values as courage and caring, and teach them how to solve disputes peacefully.” (Lundstrom, 1999.) Additionally, “many prevention-oriented interventions are interventions that are not specific to violence or behavior and that address universals that affect a variety of possible negative outcomes related to schooling.” (Peterson & Skiba, 2001.) As we will see, when “character” education, conflict management, and peer mediation techniques are properly implemented in schools, success is resulting.

In this research paper, I will discuss theories, techniques, programs and research related to conflict management/resolution in schooling focused on the areas of cooperative learning, program implementation, controversy, and peer mediation. The terms “conflict management” and “conflict resolution” are interchangeable as I have used them, although one could argue that conflict resolution is a part of the somewhat more inclusive term, “conflict management”. There is, however, a difference between conflict resolution and peer mediation. Although conflict resolution (CR) and peer mediation (PM) are integrated together, they are not the same. “In general, conflict resolution projects teach students to manage anger, control aggressive responses, understand conflict, and avoid and diffuse potentially physically violent confrontations. Peer mediation projects train a few selected students to mediate disputes between other students. Student mediators are taught to remain impartial.” (Powell, Muir-McClain, Halasyamani, 1995.) Both of these techniques are designed to allow students to solve their own problems—without required punishments or admonishments from teachers or administrators.

Research seems to suggest that before conflict management techniques can be applied effectively, schools and classrooms must have a cooperative orientation. Traditionally, schools have been set up in competitive formats in which students are rewarded for individual achievements and accomplishments only. According to Johnson & Johnson, “A cooperative context is most easily established by structuring the majority of learning situations cooperatively. Once cooperative context has been established, students may be directly taught the procedures and skills required to manage conflicts constructively.” (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.) Johnson & Johnson have done extensive research (as have others) demonstrating that cooperative learning techniques increase academic achievement. This cooperative context actively teaches students that, through daily cooperative learning exercises, they can work together to solve problems, be part of a group, and learn from inter-group and intra-group controversy. Because students must work together in groups, they are subject to group dynamics (forming, storming, norming, performing). In the storming stage, there will be confrontation and, ideally, after confrontation, there will be collaboration. Because students are peers, it is less likely that “power” will be able to solve a confrontational situation—it is much more likely that, when conflict management and peer mediation are employed, that collaboration will be the result. Without these devices, power is attempted and violence tends to be the result. See diagram below:

Common Conflict Management Alternatives

 

                                                                                             Power     Collaboration

 

 

 

 


Avoidance                                           Diffusion                                 Confrontation

 

A cooperative learning context may exist, but that does not assure positive collaboration. The implementation of conflict resolution and peer mediation programs requires a commitment from principals, teachers and students—in that order. Janet Patti and James Tobin conducted a 3-year study of seven inner-city schools in New York City that examined the role that the principal plays in the implementation of these programs. The results of the study claim that, “principals were indeed the keepers of the dream. To move their vision forward, each of the school leaders brought to the task a collaborative leadership style, a high level of conflict resolution skills, and a recognition that there was a need to strengthen and model these skills in order to become an effective role model.” (Patti & Tobin, 2001.) The task of implementation is crucial to the success of peer mediation and conflict resolution, and extremely challenging. Principals need support (from peers and loved ones), determination, and a willingness to check on the process to be sure it is being properly implemented, according to Janet Patti and James Tobin.

I do not mean to imply that controversy or confrontation is “bad” because it can sometimes lead to violence or the use of conflict management skills. Controversy has value and the value of controversy in learning is often overlooked. John Dewey once wrote, “Conflict is the gadfly of thought. It stirs us to observation and memory. It instigates invention. It shocks us out of sheep-like passivity, and sets us at noting and contriving…conflict is a “sine qua non” of reflection and ingenuity.” Dewey understood that, through conflict (controversy) we must stretch ourselves, question our intensions and reasoning, form opinions and learn how to defend them—in short, Dewey understood that controversy is among the best of learning methods. According to Johnson & Johnson, the controversy process consists of five steps. They are listed as follows:

1.      Organize information and derive conclusions.

2.      Presenting and advocating positions.

3.      The creation of uncertainty, disequilibrium, and conceptual conflict by hearing other alternatives being advocated, having one’s own position criticized and refuted, and being challenged by information that is incompatible with and does not fit with one’s conclusions.

4.      The search for additional information and viewing of the issue from both perspectives simultaneously.

5.      Creating a synthesis based on a reconceptualization that integrates both perspectives. (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.)

 

Johnson & Johnson, in a meta-analysis of the available research on controversy and achievement, found that “controversy produced higher achievement and retention than did debate. Students who participate in an academic controversy recall more correct information, are better able to transfer learning to new situations, use more complex and higher-level reasoning strategies in recalling and transferring information learned, and are better able to generalize the principles they learn to a wider variety of situations.” (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.) Controversy requires the intense engagement of higher level thinking skills. As an instructive technique, few methods can compete with controversy.

            Additionally, controversy has profound and much-desired social consequences. Again, Johnson & Johnson found controversy to “promote greater liking, social support, and self-esteem among participants than has debate, concurrence seeking, no controversy, or individualistic efforts.” (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.) Again, in order for controversy to be effective, it must be applied in a cooperative context. If applied in a competitive context it “promotes a closed-minded orientation in which individuals were unwilling to make concessions to the opponent’s viewpoint and refused to incorporate any of the opponent’s views into their own position.” (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.) By dealing with controversy in the classroom and with the subject matter in a cooperative context, students are ready to learn how to manage conflicting interests with classmates and faculty.

            Conflict management techniques are taught to children in schools through numerous programs with different names, all of which use different words to describe their particular methods. Most of these programs are similar in their goals—to bring confrontation out into the open quickly and constructively in order to rid the school of potential bullying, violence, negativity and resentment. When most successful, conflict management techniques will be used by students to solve everyday problems; making peer mediation is unnecessary. There is evidence that teaching basic conflict management techniques can even be useful among very young students. For example, a 1st-grade teacher developed the following action research project for her class:

Many of the children regularly witnessed verbal and physical aggression in their neighborhoods and homes. When confronted with conflict, these children would resort to hitting, shoving, or yelling. At the beginning of the school year, the teacher introduced her children to a class-meeting format. This was time designated for children to practice using pro-social skills by making decisions and solving problems together. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected on all of the students. Five students, however, were more closely observed during the project, because they had been previously observed having particular difficulty with problem solving. Findings indicate that the number of incidences of verbal and physical aggression decreased. Data suggest that once students were given the chance to analyze a conflict situation and think about how to solve it, they were able to generate more positive alternatives. Analysis indicated what type of conflict-resolution strategies were being used and identified which students were having the most difficulty when conflicts arose. Findings suggest that when children were given appropriate models and time to think about alternative solutions, even young children were able to be effective problem solvers.

 

It should be noted that if children are taught these techniques when they are young, they can more quickly integrate the techniques into their daily lives and are less likely to resort to violence because the techniques are used automatically—without analysis or thought, but as a matter of course.

            I would like to review some basic tenets of a few different conflict management/resolution programs being used in American schools. Emily Funderburk, 17-year-old girl, described a peer mediation program used in her school as follows:

  1. Ignore. (Do not respond to hateful comments or actions directed toward you.)
  2. Move away. (Walk quietly away to another place if the problem persists.)
  3. Talk friendly. (Use friendly terms when making a point or working for a cause.)
  4. Talk firmly. (Present facts and details in a firm but clear tone.)
  5. Get adult help. (Attract the attention of higher public officials and authorities to the cause.) (Funderburk, 2000.)

 

Johnson & Johnson advise the following procedures:

 

1.      State what you want. “I want to use the book now.”

2.      State how you feel. “I’m frustrated.”

3.      State the reasons for your wants and feelings. “You have been using the book for the past hour. If I don’t get to use the book soon my report will not be done on time. It’s frustrating to have to wait so long.”

4.      Summarize your understanding of what the other person wants, how the other person feels, and the reasons underlying both. “My understanding of you is…”

5.      Invent three optional plans to resolve the conflict.

6.      Choose one and shake hands. (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.)

 

The procedures listed above are also useful for students practicing peer mediation. Some see the value of good “decision making” as a key to resolving conflict. Jesse Palmer advocates teaching the following steps in the decision-making progress to help students resolve conflict:

1.      Conceptualizing: Students need to develop a clear understanding of the problem.

2.      Sequencing: Students need to examine patterns and create links between events that have occurred. Questions need to be asked about cause and effect.

3.      Creating alternative sequences: Students usually do not realize that there is more than one solution to their problem. Students should respond to “what if” questions. Students need opportunities to discuss alternative to dilemmas that were not originally considered.

4.      Evaluating alternatives: Students need to examine the consequences of certain actions and make the best decisions.

5.      Implementing a decision: Once an alternative has been selected steps must be taken to carry out the decision. (Palmer, 2001.)

 

These decision-making steps, coupled with active listening should, according to Palmer, help students make better decisions regarding conflict.

            Some conflict management programs are “partnering activities” with families or communities. These programs are usually performed at home, but provided by the school. The Strengthening Families Program, a skills training program for primary caregivers and their children is one such example. (Leffler & Snow, 2001.) Another example of this type of program is “First Step to Success”, which consists of a home module called HomeBase—consisting of six weekly units designed to give the skills necessary to teach a child exhibiting anti-social behavior at school. (Leffler & Snow, 2001.)

Other conflict management programs are in-class curriculum based. “Second Step: A Violence Prevention Program for Children” is one example. Second Step includes a classroom “curriculum designed to teach children empathy, impulse control, and anger management. It includes fully scripted lessons, activity plans, photo lesson cards, videotapes and audiotapes, puppets and homework sheets that are targeted toward different age groups, ranging from kindergarten through ninth grade. This lesson plan helps teachers stimulate discussion on behavior concepts, model the appropriate behavior for students, and develop role plays for them to practice this behavior.” (Leffler & Snow, 2001.) Another in-class curriculum program is called “I Can Problem Solve (ICPS)”, in which “teachers are trained to teach ICPS skills—solving problems, seeking alternative solutions, understanding consequences, developing ‘means-end’ thinking, and recognizing and identifying emotions.” (Leffler & Snow, 2001.) Some schools take a comprehensive approach to preventing violence and may use several of these programs in conjunction with each other.

When conflict management training is not enough and students cannot work through disagreements with one another, peer mediation is used. Peer mediation is very important because conflicts reaching mediators have escalated to potentially violent levels. “The Peer Mediation component to this program…trains students in structured mediation skills to help their peers resolve disputes peacefully. The peer mediators usually work in pairs, with minimal adult supervision. All agreements reached during peer mediation are documented on mediation agreement forms.” (Leffler & Snow, 2001.) Presumably, students will honor the signed agreements and students can resolve conflicts peaceably. Peer mediation is not a forced situation. In order to be effective, “mediation is voluntary.” (Johnson & Johnson, 1994.) Peer mediation is thought to be so successful because, “Peer relationships are powerful ones, based on social interactions that can help others to learn, share and help each other. Peer relationships will eventually supplant the influence of family for children [as the child develops].” (Stomfay-Stitz, 1994.)

Results of CR/PM programs are encouraging. One study, chronicling the progress of four widely used programs in Florida, North Carolina, Maryland and Missouri evaluated data collected from these projects. This data “suggest CR/PM projects may reduce the frequency of fighting and other undesirable behaviors at school, increase knowledge and modify student’s attitudes about conflict, improve school discipline, and increase attendance.” (Powell, Muir-Mclain, Halasyamani, 1995.) This study suggests that the most successful programs were those with a high level of commitment at the administrative level. A program studied in Minnesota, “that was based on the Peacemaker Program reported that the “frequency of student-student conflicts…dropped 80 percent, while conflicts referred to the principal were reduced to zero.” (Stomfay-Stitz, 1994.) The literature suggests that more research needs to be done and data taken from different areas in order to fully document the success of CR/PM programs.

            In conclusion, schools with a high level of commitment from administrators installing procedures designed to limit violence, increase communication skills, foster cooperative learning, embrace controversy, and feature “character” education tend to be the most successful integrators of CR/PM programs. Conflict resolution and peer mediation are shown to be successful techniques in these environments and place the responsibility for conflict between students on the students themselves—not on the teachers and administrators. This is a godsend for overworked teachers and principals desiring safer schools and the time to do their jobs effectively. Although more research needs to be done and more information needs to be collected, CR/PM programs show great promise.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

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Burris, Kathleen Glascott. What Do You Mean “Think Before I Act?: Conflict Resolution with Choices. Childhood Education, 2000 Sep; 76:6:397.

 

Funderburk, Emily. Peer Mediation Program. Skipping Stones, 2000 Nov; 12:4:15.

 

Hoot, James L. & Roberson, Glenda. Creating safer environments for children in the home, school and community. Childhood Education, 1994 Annual; 70:5:258.

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Lundstrom, Meg. Character makes a comeback. Instructor (1990), 1999 Oct; 109:3:25.

 

Palmer, Jesse. Conflict resolution: strategies for the elementary classroom. The Social Studies, 2001 Mar; 92:2:65.

 

Patti, Janet & Tobin, James. Leading the way: reflections on creating peaceable schools. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 2001 Spr; 10:1:41.

 

Peterson, Reece L. & Skiba, Russell. Creating school climates that prevent school violence. The Social Studies, 2001 Jul; 92:4:167.

 

Powell, Kenneth E., Muir-McClain, Lois, Halasyamani, Lakshmi. A review of selected school-based conflict resolution and peer mediation projects. Journal of School Health, 1995 Dec; 65:10:426.

 

Stomfay-Stitz, Aline M. Conflict resolution and peer mediation: pathways to safer schools. Childhood Education, 1994 Annual; 70:5:279.

 

Wheeler, Edyth & Stomfay-Stitz, Aline. Working with families: parents as partners in the peaceful classroom. Childhood Education; 2001 Mid-Summer; 77:5:318.